Fig. 5

Noise and true heterogeneity within complex systems. Source of noise include measurement error and sampling variability. True heterogeneity however, is the result of true differences of effect sizes due to 1) the dynamic biological nature which encompasses feedback loops and temporal associations; and 2) multi-factorial complexity. Increasing the sample sizes is one solution to bypass noise and attain precise effect sizes, but true heterogeneity can only be adjusted during analysis when possible and via standardizations and calibrations that limit generalizability of the conclusions